Mont Pelee, Martinique

Summit of Pelee with newly constructed dome from 1929 – 1932 eruption sequence.  Image courtesy Martinique Natural Park via Volcano Discovery, Dec 2020

One of the things we do here is try to give an overview of how various volcanic systems work, where they are located, neighboring systems, and what they have done in the past.  Most of the real work has been done by the professionals over the years and we capture some of that work, usually the most obvious, in our Additional Information links. 

Cover of first Angelo Heilprin book on the Pelee 1902 eruption.  Image courtesy Amazon Books

With that in mind, topic for this post is 1,394 m Mont (Mount, Montagne) Pelee in Martinique, whose deadly eruption in 1902 killed nearly 30,000 people in the port city of Saint Pierre, leaving just two survivors.  It was also the first modern introduction into pyroclastic flows, called at the time nuee ardente (fiery or glowing cloud).  It was also a demonstration of the power of governments to really screw things up in a most deadly manner, with decisions not to evacuate Saint-Pierre leading to residents around the volcano to evacuate into the city rather than away from the volcano. 

Publication on the 1902 eruption started quickly with three books by Professor Angelo Heilprin 1903 – 1908.  They are all available in restored or modified condition on Amazon.  The titles are:  Mont Pelee and the Tragedy of Martinique (1903); The Tower of Pelee (1904); and The Eruption of Pelee (1907). 

Since then, there have been several additional books written about the eruption, most of which are available on Amazon in Kindle or Audiobook.  Hard copy of these while available are pricey.  First is The Day the World Ended:  The Mount Pelee Disaster, May 7, 1902, 1969, by Thomas and Morgan-Witts.  Second is La Catastrophe:  The Eruption of Mount Pelee, the Worst Volcanic Disaster of the 20^th Century, 2002, by Scarth.  A recent entry is The Antillean Volcanoes, and the eruption of Mount Pelee by Mcgee and Jaggar. 

Each of these capture this system far better than a short post in a volcano enthusiasts blog.  There have also been movies and novels about the eruption and aftermath.  The first movie was produced in 1902.  As the deadliest volcanic eruption in the 20^th Century, you would expect this sort of treatment. 

Location of Martinique and Pelee on the island.  Saint Pierre is located just to the right of the “Fig 2”depiction in the lower left corner of the box.  Image courtesy Germa, et al, Jun 2015

Martinique

Martinique Island is an overseas territorial collectivity / department / region of France.  It is located in the Windward Islands along the Lesser Antilles arc, some 715 km SE of Puerto Rico.  The 376,000 inhabitants are all French citizens, mostly speak French and Martinican Creole.  The island has an area of 1,128 km2. 

Climate is relatively constant, varying between 20 – 32° C.  There are two seasons; dry from Dec – June and wet from July – Dec.  There is abundant precipitation, and the island lies in the path of Atlantic hurricanes.  The northern part of the island tends to be wetter than the southern part of the island.  The northern part of the island is heavily forested, with trees.  The southern part is savanna-like brush.  As a volcanic island, vertical relief of the terrain is dramatic. 

Current Saint Pierre on the SW flank of Mont Pelee.  Image courtesy World Atlas

The economy is heavily dependent on tourism, with limited agricultural production.  Historically, the island relied on agriculture, mainly sugar and bananas.  Over the last 20 years, this sector has dwindled significantly.  The economy is subsidized with grant aid from France. 

Mount Pelee is monitored by the Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris.  I have found no webicorders as yet.  Local volcano observatory is L’Observatoire Volcanologique et Sismologique de Martinique (OVSM).  There are multiple webcams on Martinique and around Mount Pelee.  Meteoblue has a good selection.  

Simplified geologic map of the Mont Conil – Pelee volcano.  Flank collapse scars are clearly depicted SW of the summit.  Bar graph to the right has dates of materials visible on the surface from the various stages of growth of the system.  Image courtesy Germa, et al, Jun 2015

Volcano

Volcanic activity on Martinique began with basaltic to andesitic lava flows on the eastern side 25 – 20 Ma during the construction of the older arc system.  After a lull, activity resumed around 16 Ma, building chains of basaltic to andesitic volcanoes.  This continued until 6.5 Ma.  After another lull, Morne Jacob shield volcano was built (5.2 – 1.5 Ma), Trois Ilets (2.3 – 0.3 ma), Pitons du Carbet (998 – 322 ka).  The currently active Mont Conil and Mont Pele volcanoes starting some 545 ka.  Conil and Pelee were treated as separate systems due to a switch in eruptive styles from effusive to explosive, but the chemistry of erupted magmas is close enough for them to be currently considered as a single edifice.

Mont Conil was built in two stages.  The first was effusive eruptions from 550 – 189 ka.  These were erupted from several subaerial vents.  Once the volcano breached the surface, lava flows flowed from a central vent 189 – 127 ka.  The first flank collapse 127 ka marks the change in activity from effusive to pyroclastic, and the change in edifice description from Conil to Pelee.  That collapse is referred to as Stage II.

Schematic of growth of the Conil – Pelee system.  Stages are as described in text above and below the image.  Note that Conil starts out as a detached system and first collapse (Stage II) takes place in edifice created as activity migrates SE a bit.  Colors on these maps are the same as depicted in the previous image.  Image courtesy Germa, et al, Jun 2015

Stage II created the D1 debris avalanche around 127 ka.  The construction phase of proto-Pelee began following this collapse.  Stage III lasted from 126 – 25 ka, building the proto-Pelee cone.  The new cone was built of welded, coarse pyroclastic flow deposits and andesitic lava flows.  The newly built cone is thought to be comparable in size with the current one.  Its central vent was roughly in the same location as the current vent. 

This phase ended with Stage IV, the second flank collapse and D2 debris flow around 25 ka.  Stage V was the Saint Vincent period, another cone building phase from 25 – 9 ka.  The new cone filled the new flank collapse depression.  Magmas were more mafic during this stage, with more explosive eruptions producing scoria flows.  The two oldest eruptions of this period were likely the largest known from Pelee, ejecting around 1 km3 apiece.  There was an apparent increase in magma production.  Several authors propose a repose between 19.5 – 13.5 ka. 

Digital elevation map of Pelee.  Remaining Conil rocks are the lighter colored areas to the NW and in the D1 avalanche scar.  Seismic stations are at the triangles.  Image courtesy Clouard, et al, Mar 2013

Stage VI is the third, most recent and smallest flank collapse and D3 debris avalanche at 9 ka.  The current stage VII is the Neo-Pelee period of cone construction from 9 ka to present. 

Remains of the original paleo-Pelee cone are still visible toward the northern part of the volcano.  Following the D1 flank collapse, the second or intermediate proto-Pelee phase stage rebuilt the cone eventually topped with the Morne Macouba lava dome inside the Morne Macouba caldera (crater).  The D2 flank collapse was followed by yet another round of cone building in the Saint Vincent period.  Following the most recent D3 flank collapse 9 ka, the modern cone was built during the Neo-Pelee period. 

Landslide sequence of Samperre cliff 2009 – 2010.  Helo survey photos.  Activated faults are numbered with “F” prefix.  Image courtesy .  Image courtesy Clouard, et al, Mar 2013

The modern cone was built mostly with tephras and pyroclastic flows.  Over 30 eruptions have been identified over the last 5,000 years.  The Caldeira l’Etang Sec (Dry Pond) formed during a large pumice eruption.  Although l’Etang Sec is listed as a caldera in some of the literature (likely due to the extended French name), it is more accurately described as the current summit crater.  The crater is occupied by domes built at the end of the 1902 and 1929 eruptions. 

Growth of the Pelee edifice has been physically bounded by its ancestral Mont Conil to the NW and Morne Jacob – Pitons du Carbet to the SE.  It has erupted mostly softer materials, pyroclastics and tephras.  Combine the softer material with an active hydrothermal system, and the cone is susceptible to flank collapses and debris avalanches.

Aerial portion of Pelee with flank collapse structures depicted.  Domes are depicted in dark grey.  Block and ash flow of 1902 and 1929 eruptions is depicted in light grey down the Riviere Blanche valley.  Offshore chutes eroded by debris flows are depicted down the submarine slopes of the volcano and island.  Image courtesy Le Friant, et al, Jan 2003

Bathymetry of the western slope of Martinique and Pelee was conducted 1998 – 1999.  These surveys identified at least three debris avalanche deposits stretching from the coastline to the floor of the basin.  These deposits display clear flow fronts in some parts of the avalanche.  These deposits filled steep canyons on the flanks of the island in places.  They also eroded chutes in the side of the island.  The three deposits are named D1, D2 and D3, with D2 being the most clearly defined.

D1 is the oldest of the three, extending up to 60 km from the coastline.  It is mainly covered by D2 and has a well-defined front on its SW portion.  D1 also has the thickest sedimentary layer on top.  D2 extends up to 50 km from the coastline and covers some 700 km2.  The flow front is generally 10 – 20 m high but reaches 35 m thick in places.  There has been some erosion of the deposit.  D3 is a typical lobate shape and covers some 60 km2.  It has megablocks up to half a kilometer in diameter and 10 – 40 m high.  There is a marked lack of sedimentary cover on the blocks indicating a very young age.  All of these deposits have hummocky shapes in the flows. 

A – SW flank of Pelee showing structural discontinuities 2 and 4.  B – Debris avalanche deposits in lower portion of Riviere Claire.  Color is due to hydrothermal action.  C – Hummocky blocks on the SW flank of the volcano in the slot between 2 and 4.  Image taken from the summit looking SW.  D – Crack structures on lava of Morne Julien megablock.  Image courtesy Le Friant, et al, Jan 2003

There are five discontinuities identified on the western flank of Pelee.  Two of these were recognized in 1989 and interpreted as rims of the same flank collapse structure.  The hydrothermal system developed along these scarps with different flow directions.  Recent block and ash flows (1902 and 1929) were channeled by the rim of one of these scarps. 

The first flank collapse (D1) event is named the Le Precheur flank collapse.  It is the northernmost of the events and dated around 127 ka.  Based on the thickness of the sedimentary cover on the flow, it is thought to be 4 – 8 time older than D2, 200 – 100 ka.  While the northern boundary of the collapse is clearly visible, the southern has been masked by subsequent events.  The D1 deposit has an estimated volume of 30 km3. 

3-D representation of bathymetry and topography of Martinique and submarine slopes.  Three debris avalanche boundaries are well marked.  Red 1 – D1 avalanche.  Green 2 – D2 avalanche.  Yellow 3 – D3 avalanche.  Screen capture from Le Friant, et al, Jan 2003

The D2 flank collapse event, the St Pierre flank collapse, took place some 25 ka.  It emplaced the D2 deposit.  It mostly took place to the south of the first event, and shares boundaries.  This collapse created flow erosion, 6 km long on land and a submarine chute 13 km long below the surface of the ocean.  Initial horseshoe on this collapse was 6.5 x 4 km (0.5 x 4 km offshore).  Corresponding missing volume is estimated at 13 km3, with total volume of the debris flow around 20 km3.  This debris avalanche may explain the concave coastline between the ridge of Montagne d’Irlande and St Pierre, meaning the collapse also changed the submarine flank of the volcano.  There is a submarine chute below the coastline. 

The third and smallest flank collapse event (D3) was the Riviere Seche flank collapse.  Its northern and southern rims are well defined and missing volume is around 2 km3, which is the estimated total volume of the flow.  There is a small offshore chute below the coastline.  A block of edifice that slid into the horseshoe structure during the second flank event was later cut by the D3 event.  It is dated as around 9 ka, between emplacement of two summit lava domes.  It is filled with more recent pyroclastic products dating 4.1 ka and younger. 

Vertical bathymetry of all three debris avalanche lobes on the basin bottom.  Note the chute eroded on the side of the island itself.  This may also have been an underwater portion of the D1 / D2 avalanches.  Also note the blocks in the lower portions of the D2 flow right below the “D2” lettering.  Flow fronts for all three avalanches are clearly visible in parts of the flow.  Screen capture from Le Friant, et al, Jan 2003

One of the oddities about Pelee is the preferential collapse toward the west.  This is likely due to the difference in slopes between the eastern flank (5°) and western flank (20°).  Combine the difference in slopes with an active hydrothermal system on the volcano and eruption of mostly softer tephras and pyroclastics, and flank collapse debris avalanches should be expected.  Total collapse volume of Pelee is around 70% of that of the present volume of the volcano above sea level.  Interestingly, this sort of asymmetry between flank slopes of other Lesser Antilles volcanoes and islands has led to repetitive flank collapses in the SW direction on a number of islands. 

The last flank collapse was 9 ka.  Since then, a new cone has grown inside the horseshoe shaped collapse structure, almost filling it.  As the hydrothermal system continues to work on the soft material constructing the cone, future collapse events should be expected.  For Pelee, these seem to be smaller and more frequent over time, though it is possible that smaller events have been hidden by the larger identified flank collapses. 

Schematic of hydrothermal system of Mont Pelee.  Note that groundwater flow downhill is disrupted by debris avalanche blocks that did not make it into the ocean.  Subsequent eruptions mostly covered the blocks.  Image courtesy Zlotnicki, et al, Aug 1998

There are some complexities of the erupted magma from Pelee that indicate multiple magma chambers and mixing between two types of magma in two separate magma chambers before and during an eruption.  The shallowest magma chamber is dacite.  The deep chamber is basalt.  Hotter basalt rises, mechanically mixes with the dacite, forming an andesite which rapidly triggers and explosive eruption.  There is generally a very short time lag between mixing of rising magma and explosive eruption.  Banded pumices have been recovered from both the 1902 and 1929 pyroclastic flow deposits indicating mixing before and during the eruption. 

There is an active hydrothermal system on the western flank of Pelee.  It is centered below the horseshoe shaped structure and vanished toward the southern rim, meaning there is a circulation beneath this structure.  And that circulation ends up destabilizing newly emplaced eruption products, eventually sending them into the ocean in flank collapse / debris avalanche events. 

Pyroclastic flow from Pelee following a similar path to that of the May 8 eruption.  Photo by Lacroix of a Dec 1902 eruption that was much smaller than the May 8 eruption.  Image courtesy A Lacroix in the Krafft collection via Smithsonian GVP

Eruptions

Pelee has been incredibly active over the last 10 ka, with at least 54 major eruptions identified over that period.   21 of these are classified as VEI4, which was the strength of the 1902 eruption.  There have only been 4 eruptions since 1792, meaning the volcano erupts infrequently, though vigorously.  The VOGRIPA database lists the multiple VEI4 eruptions as ejecting around 0.1 km3 of bulk andesites.  Three of them were a bit larger in the VEI 4.6 range.  The most recent of these was in 1340 AD. 

Two of the older identified eruptions 4.6 and 2.4 ka ago formed small explosive fountains with pyroclastic currents.  More recent eruptions 4.1 ka, 1.9 ka, 1.7 ka, and 700 years ago formed stable Plinian columns 20 – 30 km high that collapsed forming pyroclastic density currents.  There were minor phreatic eruptions in 1792 and 1851.  There were non-eruptive lahars in the late 19^th Century down the Riviere du Precheur valley.  The last four major eruptions involved a blast like phase followed by formation and destruction of lava domes as seen in the two 20^th Century eruption sequences 1902 – 1905 and 1929 – 1932.

Two domes in Pelee.  Aileron dome in the left foreground was built during the eruption sequence 9.7 ka.  Back side of the dome was cut by the D3 flank collapse.  Eastern rim of the current crater l’Etang Sec cuts horizontally across the photo upper right.  1929 dome is upper right in the background.  Image courtesy Lee Siebert, 2002, via Smithsonian GVP

The 1902 – 1905 eruptive sequence was well-documented.  The climactic eruption of the eruption on May 8, 1902, was followed by five additional major pyroclastic flow eruptions, the last one on Aug 30.  Then a dome-forming eruption took place, creating the great spine.  Explosive events continued through Sept 1903.  Small pyroclastic flows associated with dome building occurred until the end of the eruption but were mostly contained in the Riviere Blanche valley.

The precursors of the May 8, 1902, eruption began over a decade earlier in 1889 when fumaroles were observed in the Etang Sec crater for the first time.  Somewhere along the line, the crater filled with water, fueling the phreatic explosions.  Fumarole activity slowly intensified until late April 1902 when there were a pair of phreatic explosions.  These explosions released ash but did not show signs of juvenile magma.  Phreatic activity built sporadically until May 1 and 2 when it peaked.  On May 5 after a 3-day lull, part of the caldera wall collapsed sending hot water in the crater down the Riviere Blanche via lahars isolating Precheur village.  This left an empty crater with a V-shaped notch toward the south.

Lava dome extruded from Pelee after the May 8 eruption.  Growth started Nov 1902, reaching maximum height of 350 m by May 31, 1903.  Slowly disintegrated and was gone two years later.  Photo taken Mar 15, 1903.  From the Krafft collection via Smithsonian GVP

On May 6, magmatic activity began with a high plume with lightning.  A new dome was visible on May 7.  On May 8 at 8 AM, the newly formed dome exploded, and a large pyroclastic flow exited the crater.  The flow ended up being cone shaped, about 90° wide from E-W.  It reached St Pierre 8 km from the summit two minutes later engulfing the town and killing nearly 30,000.  A second flow on May 20 traveled the same route and completed destruction of the city. 

There are two competing theories about what actually took place.  The initial interpretation based on layered surge deposits and observations was the collapse of the plume above the crater, exiting through the notch in the crater wall.  This was revised by Sparks in 1983 after the Mount St Helens 1980 eruption proposing a lateral blast from the former location of the dome.  This conclusion is based on estimated velocity of the flow, large size of pyroclasts carried by the flow, cone-shape of the flow, and the direction of the flow from the crater outlet.  A second theory is an ash-cloud surge derived from a block and ash flow.  This concentrated flow is thought to have been generated from the collapse of a short eruption column and transported through the outlet downstream toward the south.  As it turns out, the second theory was the most accurate description of what happened.

Small pyroclastic flow down the same path as 1902 and 1929 activity.  This one was taken Jan 7, 1930 by Hayot.  Interesting note is the GVP page on this image has it dated 1903 while the image itself is listed as 1930.  Image courtesy Krafft collection via Smithsonian GVP

Amazingly enough with all the study and analysis of the 1902 eruption, there is still missing and unclear data.  One example is exact nature of the eruption source conditions.  Another is the dynamics of the dilute part of the pyroclastic flow.  Total volume of the flow is still missing.  Although there is an estimate of flow volume downstream from the volcano, much of it entered the ocean.  No study prior to 2020 estimated the volume of either the May 8 or May 20 flow, although there is an estimate of the dome volume before the eruption.  The occurrence of a blast during the eruption has been strongly debated. 

Modeling done by Gueugneau, et al published in July 2020 led to their conclusion that the May 8 eruption was caused by a sudden decompression of the growing dome in the crater.  This created a small vertical column that quickly collapsed into a powerful pyroclastic flow focused by the shape of the southern crater outlet.  As it exited, a dense block and ash flow developed and generated an overriding ash cloud surge as it moved seaward.  The farther it moved downstream, the more voluminous it became as it moved and spread E and W. 

Pyroclastic flow deposit outcrop south of St Pierre.  Note that the volcano is located north of the city, which means the location was hit on a regular basis before the city was founded.  Holes are due to cannon fire between French and British forces for control of the island.  Image courtesy Smithsonian GVP

One of the outcomes from this analysis was how the topography of the southern flank of Pelee enhanced lateral spreading of the surge, which in turn further exposed St Pierre to the flow.  While this eruption is considered a small-scale explosive event for this volcano, high energy, small volume pyroclastic flows are more probable in the future than the one in every 300-year larger eruption.  It also tends to support the notion that generation of ash cloud surges in small volume pyroclastic flows mostly comes from block and ash flows. 

Example of earthquakes beneath Pelee May 28 – Jun 4, 2021.  All of these are very small, below M 0.2.  Image courtesy Volcano Discovery

The current seismic monitoring network was installed in 1978.  Swarms were recorded in 1980, 1985 – 1986, 2007 and 2014.  The latter two swarms were associated with tectonic events.  Volcanic seismicity appeared in 2019 centered 4-5 km below the summit.  Some of this was deeper, below 10 km.  Tremor was recorded Nov 2020 and described as being connected with reactivation of the hydrothermal system.  Seismic data since Apr 2019 has been above background levels Jan 2015 – Apr 2019. 

Seismicity remained high Dec 2020 – Jan 2021.  This included high frequency volcano-tectonic earthquakes. There were two periods of tremor Jan 3 – 4.  This is interpreted as ongoing changes in the hydrothermal system.  Overflights in late Dec did not observe any fumarole activity.  Varying levels of activity continued until 19 – 26 Mar 2021 when it increased with at least 55 high frequency volcano-tectonic earthquakes less than M 1 located within a kilometer of sea level.  Volcano Discovery’s Pelee page has a current list of recent earthquakes.  Most of these are very small. 

Major active tectonic structures of the Lesser Antilles Arc.  Image courtesy Beck, et al, Jan 2012

Tectonics

The Lesser Antilles Volcanic Arc, together with its subduction zone, forms the eastern boundary of the Caribbean Plate. Volcanism in this region is due to the westwards subduction of the Atlantic oceanic lithosphere under the eastern section of the Caribbean plate. The volcanoes of the outer Leeward Islands, like Antigua and Barbuda, are now extinct and covered with maritime sedimentary rock – limestone beds and coral reefs. The inner volcanic arc is still active with about 20 active volcanoes. Despite the Caribbean plate’s relative movement being to the east, the inner volcanic arc has migrated some 50 km westwards. This has been attributed to either a) the subduction of rigid ridges on the sea floor, or b) flattening of the subducting slab or c) to changes in the relative plate motions between the North American, South American and Caribbean plates.

Earthquake map of Lesser Antilles 1976 – 2020.  Circles indicate quakes M 4-6.  Beach balls are quakes greater than M 6.  White shaded areas are proposed rupture areas of 1839 and 1843 historic earthquakes.  Image courtesy Van Rijsingen, et al, Dec 2020

Martinique island is located in the central part of the Lesser Antilles arc.  The arc is curved, extending over 800 km from South America to the Greater Antilles.  Arc volcanism has been active along this arc for the last 40 Ma.  The arc divides into two parallel strings of islands.  The outer (eastern) portion is older, with thick carbonate platforms cover the volcanic basement rocks of the islands.  Volcanoes in the inner string have been active over the last 20 Ma.  South of Dominica, the arc is a single string of islands with older and younger islands interspersed.  The islands are bordered on the W by the back arc Grenada Basin, up to 2,900 m deep. 

Volcanic styles on the Leeward Island vary between multiple domes similar to the Souifrere Hills volcano on Monserrat and single stratovolcanoes like Mt Pelee on Martinique.  Eruptions tend to be explosive in nature with long repose times between eruptions and well evolved magmas.  While there are older basalts and lava flows, these tend to be more the exception rather than the rule. 

Conclusions

Mont Pelee gave the world an incredibly deadly eruption over a century ago.  As it turns out, that eruption wasn’t particularly large or destructive over the recent history of the volcano.  The system is a full-featured stratovolcano, complete with multiple flank collapses, explosive eruptions, dome building, dome destruction, all sitting on an active hydrothermal system which softens the cone every single day. 

On a scientific viewpoint, investigation of the 1902 eruption led to the first close analysis of pyroclastic flows.  Less well known is its contributions to identification and analysis of block and ash flows, a term I have seen from time to time but had little understanding of.  Don’t know if I understand them as yet, but they are no longer a completely black box. 

Pelee has been treated with a great deal of respect since 1902, and still has volcanic earthquakes.  Over the last 9,000 years, eruptions have become more explosive and happen more often, which generally means they are a bit smaller.  But the current cone is about as large as it previously was before past flank collapses.  Pelee has been a killer in the past and until proven otherwise, should be assumed to still have the capability to do the same in the future. 

May 26, 1902, image of Mont Pelee in eruption.  Image courtesy Heilprin via This Day In History:  May 8, 1902

Additional information

Mount Pelee, Wiki

Smithsonian GVP – Pelee

Benchmarks:  May 8, 1902: The deadly eruption of Mount Pelee, Earth Magazine, J Rosen, Apr 2015

Dynamics and impacts of the May 8^th, 1902 pyroclastic current at Mount Pelee (Martinique): New insights from numerical modeling, Gueugneau, et al, Frontiers in Earth Science, Jul 2020

Mont Pelee: Martinique, ExploreVolcanoes.com

Pelee – Volcano World, Oregon State University, Jul 2011

Geothermal exploration in the Mount Pelee volcano – Morne Rouge and Diamant areas (Martinique, West French Indies:  Geochemical data, Sanjuan, et al, Apr 2005

Large-scale flank collapse events during the activity of Montagne Pelee, Martinique, Lesser Antilles, Le Friant, et al, Jan 2003

The past 5,000 years of volcanic activity at Mt Pelee Martinique (FWI): implications for assessment of volcanic hazards, Westercamp & Traineau, Sept 1983

Geochemistry of volcanic rocks from Mt Pelee, Martinique, Dupuy, et al, Oct 1985

Magmatology of Mt Pelee (Martinique, FWI) I: Magma mixing and triggering of the 1902 and 1929 Pelean nuees ardentes, Gourgaud, et al, 1989

Magma Mixing in a main stage of formation of Montagne Pelee: The Saint Vincent-type scoria flow sequence, Bourdier, et al, 1985

Stratigraphy of the 1902 and 1929 nuee-ardente deposits, Mt Pelee, Martinqiue, Bourdier, et al, 1989

Construction and destruction of Mont Pelee volcano:  Volumes and rates constrained from a geomorphological model of evolution, Germa, et al, Jul 2015

The primitive volcano of Mount Pelee: its construction and partial destruction by flank collapse, Vincent, et al, Aug 1989

Hydrothermal circulation beneach Mount Pelee inferred by self potential surveying.  Structural and tectonic implications, Zlotniki, et al, Aug 1998